21. Emmer
The bread grain of the Egyptian pyramids — tetraploid ancient wheat, high in lutein, with a yellowish bran-rich endosperm.
Emmer in 1 minute
What does it provide? High arabinoxylan (5–7 g/100 g bran), the lutein carotenoid (giving emmer endosperm its yellowish color — 0.7–1.5 mg/100 g, 2–3× the modern wheat average), phytate (a fiber-matrix component, partly antinutritive, partly antioxidant), ferulic acid, and moderate β-glucan. Emmer is tetraploid (AABB) — the ancestor of durum wheat. Whole-grain ancient-wheat sourdough bread has shown a better glycemic profile and higher satiety than modern wheat in human studies — note that Sofi 2014 and Whittaker 2017 actually studied khorasan (kamut, Triticum turgidum subsp. turanicum), a different but also tetraploid ancient wheat; results may be extrapolated cautiously to emmer (Sofi 2014[1565], Whittaker 2017[1566]).
How much? Whole-grain emmer (farro) 60–100 g cooked (≈ 30–40 g dry), or bread 60–100 g/day. The emmer grain is coarse and bran-rich; long soaking (12 hours) improves texture and reduces phytate content.
When to avoid? Celiac disease and confirmed wheat allergy (emmer is gluten-containing, about 9–13%), severe IBS elimination phase (fructan), active NCGS phase, classic ATI sensitivity.
Emmer (Triticum dicoccon), internationally known as emmer or farro medio, is one of the earliest domesticated grains: finds suggest it was first cultivated in the Fertile Crescent — today's southeast Turkey and northern Syria — about 10,000–12,000 years ago, from wild emmer Triticum dicoccoides. It was a central grain of the Neolithic agricultural revolution: the first bread grain of Çatalhöyük (modern Turkey), Jericho, and Egypt. The builders of the Egyptian pyramids ate sourdough bread made from emmer flour — DNA analysis of bread fragments found in tomb chambers (around 3000 BCE) confirms emmer dominance. The Greeks cultivated it as "zea," the Romans called it "far" — hence the Italian farro.
From the Bronze Age, common wheat (hexaploid Triticum aestivum) and durum wheat (Triticum turgidum durum) gradually displaced emmer: less coarse kernel, easier threshing, higher yield. By medieval Europe its role was marginal; it survived only in mountainous, peripheral areas (Tuscan Garfagnana, emmer co-cultivated with Ethiopian teff, Ukrainian-Russian-Persian borderlands). In Italy, farro della Garfagnana is an IGP-protected product, and the classic ingredient of Tuscan-Umbrian zuppa di farro (emmer soup). From the 1980s onward, the slow-food and organic movement brought emmer back — especially in Italy, Austria, Germany, and Hungary. Modern nutrition values emmer for its high lutein content (yellowish endosperm like durum), antioxidant profile, and the improving glycemic profile in sourdough form.
Scientific Background
Emmer (Triticum dicoccon) is tetraploid (AABB) — descended from a cross between durum wheat (T. turgidum durum) and an ancient diploid wild grass. Gluten content is 9–13%, somewhat lower than modern bread wheat, but the gluten fraction differs qualitatively: less HMW glutenin, more gliadin (Geisslitz 2018).[1567] Celiakogenic epitope activity remains — emmer is not celiac-safe (Spaenij-Dekking 2005).[1558]
Lutein and other carotenoid content in emmer endosperm is outstanding — Hidalgo & Brandolini 2013 (primarily einkorn-focused, with supplementary emmer data)[1568] and Abdel-Aal 2007 measured 0.7–1.5 mg/100 g lutein concentration, 2–3× the modern bread wheat average (0.2–0.5 mg/100 g).[1569] Lutein is significant for eye health (macular degeneration prevention) and cognitive function — human studies show a positive correlation between lutein intake and cognitive performance (Mohn 2018).[1570]
Arabinoxylan (AX) content is 5–7 g/100 g in bran — comparable to common wheat. AX is a substrate for Bifidobacterium, Roseburia, and F. prausnitzii in the colon. Phytate content is higher in emmer (1.0–1.5 g/100 g) than in bread wheat (0.7–1.0 g/100 g); this both reduces Fe, Zn, Ca absorption (antinutritive) and acts antioxidant and colorectal-cancer protective (Schlemmer 2009).[1571] Sourdough fermentation or 12+ hours of soaking reduces phytic acid by 30–60%, improving mineral bioavailability.
β-glucan is moderate (0.5–0.8 g/100 g), less than oat or barley. Ferulic acid in the bran layer (200–400 mg/kg), in covalently bound form — colonic bacterial ferulic-acid esterase releases it. Sofi 2014 and Whittaker 2017 human RCTs studied khorasan (kamut, T. turgidum subsp. turanicum) ancient wheat — not emmer directly — and found better postprandial glycemia and improved T2D risk profile vs. modern wheat; these results apply directly to kamut and can only be cautiously extrapolated to similarly tetraploid emmer.
- + Sourdough fermentation: fructan reduction, partial gluten hydrolysis, better tolerability.
- + Olive oil, tomato (Mediterranean pattern): lutein × lycopene synergy, antioxidant co-effect.
- + Legumes (chickpea, lentil, black bean): complementary amino-acid profile + AX × legume-fiber synergy.
- + Green herbs (rosemary, thyme): additive polyphenol effect.
- + Cheese, walnut (Tuscan farro salad): fat aids lutein absorption.
- + 12-hour soaking: reduces phytate, improves mineral absorption.
- In a celiac diet: emmer is not gluten-free — strictly avoid.
- White emmer-flour products: most of bran-AX, lutein, and ferulic acid is lost.
- Iron supplementation in the same meal: high phytate content — temporal separation.
- High-dose fast carbohydrates (sugar, white rice) together: glycemic spike, lutein benefit disappears.
- In active NCGS phase: trial with sourdough form; otherwise avoid.
- Zinc and calcium supplementation in the same meal: phytate chelates divalent cations.
- Celiac disease: absolutely avoid — emmer is gluten-containing.
- Wheat allergy (IgE-mediated): high cross-reactivity.
- NCGS: individual trial, only with sourdough form.
- IBS elimination phase: moderate-to-high fructan content — small portion of sourdough form may be tolerable.[777]
- Severe ATI sensitivity: avoid.
- Acute bowel obstruction, severe stricture: high fiber — risky.
- Severe kidney disease (CKD 4–5): moderate phosphorus — dietitian supervision.
- Infant (under 1 year): gluten introduction from 4–6 months in small amounts.
References
[777] . Monash UniversityMonash FODMAP database. High and Low FODMAP foods. Link
The Monash University FODMAP database, classifying foods as high or low in FODMAP content.
[1558] Spaenij-Dekking L et al. Natural variation in toxicity of wheat: potential for selection of nontoxic varieties for celiac disease patients2005;129(3):797–806. Gastroenterology. Link
BACKGROUND \& AIMS: Celiac disease (CD) is an intestinal disorder caused by T-cell responses to peptides derived from the gluten proteins present in wheat. Such peptides have been found both in the gliadin and glutenin proteins in gluten. The only cure for CD is a lifelong gluten-free diet. It is unknown, however, if all wheat varieties are equally harmful for patients. We investigated whether wheat varieties exist with a natural low number of T-cell-stimulatory epitopes. METHODS: Gluten proteins present in public databases were analyzed for the presence of T-cell-stimulatory sequences.
[1565] Sofi F et al. Effect ofsubsp. turanicum wheat on irritable bowel syndrome: a double-blinded randomised dietary intervention trial. Br J Nutr. 2014;111(11):1992–1999. Triticum turgidum. 2014. Link
The aim of the present study was to examine the effect of a replacement diet with organic, semi-whole-grain products derived from Triticum turgidum subsp. turanicum (ancient) wheat on irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) symptoms and inflammatory/biochemical parameters. A double-blinded randomised cross-over trial was performed using twenty participants (thirteen females and seven males, aged 18-59 years) classified as having moderate IBS. Participants received products (bread, pasta, biscuits and crackers) made either from ancient or modern wheat for 6 weeks in a random order. Symptoms due to IBS were evaluated using two questionnaires, which were compiled both at baseline and on a weekly basis during the intervention period. Blood analyses were carried out at the beginning and end of each respective intervention period. During the intervention period with ancient wheat products, patients experienced a significant decrease in the severity of IBS symptoms, such as abdominal pain (P< 0·0001), bloating (P= 0·004), satisfaction with stool consistency (P< 0·001) and tiredness (P< 0·0001).
[1566] Whittaker A et al. A khorasan wheat-based replacement diet improves risk profile of patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus: a randomized crossover trial2017;56(3):1191–1200. Eur J Nutr. Link
PURPOSES: The aim of the present study was to examine whether a replacement diet with products made with organic ancient khorasan wheat could provide additive protective effects in reducing glucose, insulin, lipid and inflammatory risk factors, and in restoring blood redox balance in type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) patients compared to diet with product made with modern organic wheat. METHODS: We conducted a randomized, double-blinded crossover trial with two intervention phases on 21 T2DM patients (14 females, 7 males). The participants were assigned to consume products (bread, pasta, crackers and biscuits) made using semi-whole flour from organic wheat that was either from ancient khorasan wheat or modern control wheat for 8 weeks in a random order. An 8-week washout period was implemented between the interventions. Laboratory analyses were performed both at the beginning and at the end of each intervention phase. RESULTS: The metabolic risk profile improved only after the khorasan intervention period, as measured by a reduction in total and LDL cholesterol (mean reduction: -3.7 and -3.4 \%, respectively), insulin (-16.3 \%) and blood glucose (-9.1 \%).
[1567] Geisslitz S et al. Targeted LC-MS/MS reveals similar contents of α-amylase/trypsin-inhibitors as putative triggers of nonceliac gluten sensitivity in all wheat species except einkorn2018;66(46):12395–12403. J Agric Food Chem. Link
Amylase/trypsin-inhibitors (ATIs) are putative triggers of nonceliac gluten sensitivity, but contents of ATIs in different wheat species were not available. Therefore, the predominant ATIs 0.19 + 0.53, 0.28, CM2, CM3, and CM16 in eight cultivars each of common wheat, durum wheat, spelt, emmer, and einkorn grown under the same environmental conditions were quantitated by targeted liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) and stable isotope dilution assays using specific marker peptides as internal standards. The results were compared to a label-free untargeted LC-MS/MS analysis, in which protein concentrations were determined by intensity based absolute quantitation. Both approaches yielded similar results. Spelt and emmer had higher ATI contents than common wheat, with durum wheat in between. Only three of eight einkorn cultivars contained ATIs in very low concentrations.
[1568] Hidalgo A, Brandolini A. Lipid components in einkorn (Triticum monococcum L.) and other Triticum species 2013;57(3):454–457. J Cereal Sci. 2013.
Cereal-science article on the lipid components in einkorn (Triticum monococcum L.) and other Triticum species.
[1569] Abdel-Aal ES et al. Identification and quantification of seed carotenoids in selected wheat species2007;55(3):787–794. J Agric Food Chem. Link
Study identifying and quantifying seed carotenoids in selected wheat species.
[1570] Mohn ES et al. Lutein and cognition across the lifespan2018;9(5):671–688. Adv Nutr. Link
Review article on lutein and cognition across the lifespan.
[1571] Schlemmer U et al. Phytate in foods and significance for humans: food sources, intake, processing, bioavailability, protective role and analysis2009;53(S2):S330–S375. Mol Nutr Food Res. Link
The article gives an overview of phytic acid in food and of its significance for human nutrition. It summarises phytate sources in foods and discusses problems of phytic acid/phytate contents of food tables. Data on phytic acid intake are evaluated and daily phytic acid intake depending on food habits is assessed. Degradation of phytate during gastro-intestinal passage is summarised, the mechanism of phytate interacting with minerals and trace elements in the gastro-intestinal chyme described and the pathway of inositol phosphate hydrolysis in the gut presented. The present knowledge of phytate absorption is summarised and discussed. Effects of phytate on mineral and trace element bioavailability are reported and phytate degradation during processing and storage is described.