13. Anise
The classic digestion aid — anethole, ouzo-pastis tradition, and the EMA pediatric monograph.
Anise in 1 minute
What does it provide? Trans-anethole (80–95% of the essential oil — carminative: gas-reducing, smooth muscle relaxant, moderate expectorant effect; vagal-mediated intestinal motility regulation), in smaller amounts estragole (genotoxic at high doses — EMA-restricted), and p-anisaldehyde. Anethole content is higher than in fennel. Clinically used traditionally to relieve functional dyspepsia, bloating, and cough.
How much? In the kitchen, 1–3 g (½–1 tsp) daily, in pastries and fish marinades. As a medicinal tea EMA monograph (2014): 1–3 g crushed seed / 200 ml hot water, 10 min covered, 2–3×/day after meals. Picon 2010 RCT (anise + fennel + elder + senna): significant improvement in chronic constipation over 28 days.
When to avoid? Estrogen-sensitive tumor (breast, endometrial, ovarian cancer) alongside high-dose extract (weak phytoestrogen effect); tamoxifen therapy; in pregnancy as high-dose essential oil (uterine-stimulating potential); child under 4 years with concentrated essential oil (EMA — estragole toxicity). Detailed condition-specific contraindications (Apiaceae allergy, gastric ulcer, long-term high dose) are in the detailed section.
Anise (Pimpinella anisum) is one of the classic spices of ancient Egyptian and Greco-Roman cuisine — anise seeds have been recovered from Tutankhamun's tomb, and Pliny recommended "anisum" for 22 ailments, including respiratory complaints and digestion.[2322] The Greco-Roman "mustaceus" — an anise- and cumin-seed pastry — was the closing of classic banquets, as it supported digestion; from this developed the modern "aniseed cake" and "cookies" tradition. In medieval European monastery gardens (Hildegard von Bingen, Salerno school), digestive, respiratory, and breast-milk-supportive use was standard.
The Mediterranean "anise drinks" (Greek ouzo, French pastis, Italian sambuca, Turkish raki, Lebanese arak) are built around the anethole content — these are all anise- or star anise-based. The "louche effect" (when water is added, the clear drink turns milky white) demonstrates anethole's poor water solubility. Modern phytochemistry identified anethole in 1843, the common main bioactive of anise, fennel, and star anise — hence the cross-allergies, and hence also the traditional "four digestion-supporting seeds" blend. The EMA/HMPC monograph in 2014 confirmed anise's traditional herbal status for the relief of functional dyspepsia, bloating, and cold in adults and children over 4 years (concentrated essential oil is NOT for infants, due to estragole content).[2317]
Scientific Background
Anise's main bioactive is trans-anethole, which makes up 80–95% of the seed's essential oil — at an even higher ratio than in fennel. Small amounts of estragole, p-anisaldehyde, and small amounts of coumarin complete it.[2321]
Pharmacologically, trans-anethole is carminative (gas-reducing), spasmolytic (smooth muscle relaxant), a mild expectorant, and has weak phytoestrogen-like effects. The digestion-supporting effect is based on vagal-mediated gastrointestinal motility modulation and smooth-muscle relaxation.[2320]
Clinical evidence is moderate: the Picon 2010 RCT (anise + fennel + elder + senna) produced significant improvement in chronic constipation.[2318] In functional dyspepsia, small pilots show positive results.
Respiratory effect: anethole has moderate expectorant and bronchodilator effects, which explains the classic "anise tea for cough" tradition. Large RCT is limited.
Galactagogue tradition: anise tea for breastfeeding mothers via weak phytoestrogen effects linked to anethole is classic, but randomized evidence is limited.
Estragole toxicity: per EFSA 2012 assessment, at high doses genotoxic and carcinogenic in animal models.[2319] EMA therefore does not recommend concentrated essential oil for children under 4 years, and long use of high-dose supplements is to be avoided.
At the microbiome level, small pilots showed Lactobacillus-supportive effect of anise's polyphenol fraction; antimicrobial in vitro effect against opportunistic pathogens.
- + Fennel, star anise (anethole synergy): classic digestion-supporting tea mix.
- + Caraway (Carum carvi): classic "four anti-bloating seeds."
- + Baked goods (anise biscuits, gingerbread, gibanica): classic Central European and Balkan pattern.
- + Hot drink (pastis, ouzo): classic digestion-supporting digestif due to anethole content.
- + Honey: traditional for cough syrup.
- + Fish marinade (Provençal): anise + olive oil + lemon + dill.
- Estrogen-containing medications + high-dose extract: theoretical hormonal interaction.
- Tamoxifen + anise supplement: estrogen-like effect may counter treatment intent.
- High-dose supplement chronically (6+ months): estragole toxicity risk.
- Long simmer (30+ min at high heat): essential oil evaporates.
- Concentrated essential oil for infants: to be avoided.
- Anticoagulant + high-dose extract: theoretical bleeding risk.
- Estrogen-sensitive tumor (breast cancer, endometrial, ovarian cancer): high-dose supplement to be avoided.
- Pregnancy (high-dose essential oil): uterine-stimulating potential.[2323]
- Infant < 4 years concentrated essential oil: EMA restricts.
- Apiaceae allergy (fennel, dill, coriander, caraway): cross-reaction.
- Active gastric ulcer: concentrated essential oil irritates.
- Severe liver disease: high-dose supplement with caution.
- Anticoagulant therapy: medical supervision at high doses.
- Anethole allergy (rare): to be avoided.
Daily serving
1–3 g (≈ ½–1 tsp) daily; tea 1–3 g crushed seed/200 ml water, 2–3×/day (EMA).
Preparation pattern
- Whole seed: dry-pan toasted for 30 sec for aroma release.
- Tea: crushed seed + 200 ml hot water, 10 min steep under a lid.
- Pastry: ground anise into dough (gingerbread, anise biscuits).
- Fish marinade: ground anise + olive oil + lemon + fresh herbs.
Classic patterns
Anise mulled wine: red wine + anise + cinnamon + clove + orange peel.
Central European gingerbread: honey dough + anise + cinnamon + clove + nutmeg.
Greek ouzo / Italian sambuca: anise spirit at the end of a meal, diluted with iced water.
EMA tea for functional dyspepsia: 2 g crushed seed + 200 ml hot water, 10 min, 2–3×/day after meals.
Storage and what to avoid
Storage: whole seed 2 years airtight, in a dark place; ground seed loses aroma after 6 weeks.
What not to do: don't give concentrated essential oil to infants internally, don't combine clinical-dose supplements with tamoxifen, don't cook long at high heat.
References
[2317] EMA/HMPC 2013 (rev. 1). European Union herbal monograph on Pimpinella anisum L., fructus. 2013. Link
EMA/HMPC European Union herbal monograph on the fruit of Pimpinella anisum L. (anise, anisi fructus).
[2318] Picon PD et al. Randomized clinical trial of a phytotherapic compound containing Pimpinella anisum for chronic constipation2010;10:17. BMC Complement Altern Med. Link
BACKGROUND: A phytotherapic compound containing Pimpinella anisum L., Foeniculum vulgare Miller, Sambucus nigra L., and Cassia augustifolia is largely used in Brazil for the treatment of constipation. However, the laxative efficacy of the compound has never been tested in a randomized clinical trial. The aim of this study was to evaluate the efficacy and safety of the product. METHODS: This randomized, crossover, placebo-controlled, single-blinded trial included 20 patients presenting with chronic constipation according to the criteria of the American Association of Gastroenterology. The order of treatments was counterbalanced across subjects: half of the subjects received the phytotherapic compound for a 5-day period, whereas the other half received placebo for the same period. Both treatment periods were separated by a 9-day washout period followed by the reverse treatment for another 5-day period.
[2319] EFSA. Compendium on estragole — risk assessment2012. EFSA Journal. Link
EFSA compendium and risk assessment of the compound estragole.
[2320] Shojaii A, Abdollahi Fard M. Review of pharmacological properties and chemical constituents of Pimpinella anisum2012;2012:510795. ISRN Pharm. 2012. Link
Pimpinella anisum (anise), belonging to Umbelliferae family, is an aromatic plant which has been used In Iranian traditional medicine (especially its fruits) as carminative, aromatic, disinfectant, and galactagogue. Because the wide traditional usage of Pimpinella anisum for treatment of diseases, in this review published scientific reports about the composition and pharmacological properties of this plant were collected with electronic literature search of GoogleScholar, PubMed, Sciencedirect, Scopus, and SID from 1970 to 2011. So far, different studies were performed on aniseeds and various properties such as antimicrobial, antifungal, antiviral, antioxidant, muscle relaxant, analgesic and anticonvulsant activity as well as different effects on gastrointestinal system have been reported of aniseeds. It can also reduce morphine dependence and has beneficial effects on dysmenorrhea and menopausal hot flashes in women. In diabetic patients, aniseeds showed hypoglycemic and hypolipidemic effect and reduce lipid peroxidation. The most important compounds of aniseeds essential oil were trans-anetole, estragole, γ-hymachalen, para-anisaldehyde and methyl cavicol.
[2321] Tabanca N et al. Composition of Pimpinella anisum essential oil 2005. Pharm Biol. 2005.
Study on the composition of Pimpinella anisum (anise) essential oil.
[2322] Mosaffa-Jahromi M et al. Anise (Pimpinella anisum) syrup for migraine prophylaxis: open-label trial2016. Acta Med Iran. Link
Seyed Hamdollah Mosavat has made substantial contributions in conception, designing, acquisition of data and preformed clinical trial., Amin Moayedfard and Abbas Rahimi Jaberi had contribution in designing and preformed clinical trial. Zahra Sobhani and Maryam Mosaffa-Jahromi designed and prepared drugs of study. Aida Iraji has made drug biochemical assay. Seyed Hamdollah Mosavat had contribution in designing and revised the manuscript critically for important intellectual content and had contribution in designing and analyzing of data. Seyed Hamdollah Mosavat, Amin Moayedfard and Abbas Rahimi Jaberi had contribution in conception and designing and revised the manuscript critically for important intellectual content. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.
[2323] Nahidi F et al. The effect of fennel and anise on uterine contractions 2009. Iran J Obstet Gynecol Infertil. 2009.
Study on the effect of fennel and anise on uterine contractions.